China history questions Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

China history questions - Coursework Example This means that it was relatively easy to form an empire in China, and once form such empires only suffered from rare international interference until the modern era. Beyond this, however, there are also aspects of Chinese society that led to this longstanding imperial nature. One is a unified language: China was a highly literate society from its earliest days, and more or less the same language (or mutually intelligible dialects) have been spoken uniformly across that range ever since. Beyond that, Chinese philosophy has tended to be relatively patriarchal, glorifying those who are in power as deserving to be so (either through the meritocracy of the government tests or divine right of the supreme ruler) and thus societies within China were relatively unlikely to rebel against their overlords. Despite all of this, however, governments did occasionally fall. One of the most famous cases occurred at the close of the first Empire, when Qin died on a trip to the distant parts of his em pire, and his subordinates conspired to place a pliable son on the throne. In this case, it can largely be argued that the disintegration was caused by overwhelming importance of the personality of the emperor in this early state, and the volatility caused by a popular emperor dying and his son having foolish policies. One case of the overthrow of China’s power through invasion occurred via the Mongol invasions of the middle ages. Here, the steppes that had formerly posed as a protection from China against invading people actually became the source an invasion. The country quickly formed back into its imperial habits, however, with a Mongol ruler simply replacing the Chinese ruler. This quick reconstruction as a consequence of the strength of the bureaucracy and the relative flexibility of the Mongols, who tended to adapt easily to new systems of control. One case where the empire almost fell but remained together was the Rebellion of the Seven states. In this case the Seven pseudo independent states under the Han dynasty rebelled against further centralization of government – but a military conflict allowed the Han to retain control, indicating the power of the centralized imperial army that the dynasty had been able to develop. 2. Though China imagined itself to be an unlimited realm, it was in point of fact quite constrained. The ideological underpinnings of this perception of the centrality of China were somewhat well supported: as far as China knew it was by far the largest and most powerful empire in the world (and for most of this existence it was probably true). Furthermore, Chinese culture was put on a pedastul above all others, which were considered barbarous. Despite China’s imagination, however, it was not an unlimited realm. In physical terms, China was in fact quite limited: as discussed in the previous chapter, China actually had significant barriers to entry on almost all sides of it. Yet for all this, China did engage in i nternational relations, most prominently with other countries in south-east Asia, but also with much more distant peoples. China did have some trade across the Himalayas with India, who in turn traded with Arabs who in turn traded with Europeans. Thus, China did have contact with the realms outside of itself, albeit

New Labours Policies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

New Labours Policies - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that New Labour’s policies and principles that have given the party victory in elections for three consecutive terms since 1997 have focused on three crucial areas including the economy, public services including health and education and crime and asylum.   Labour has highlighted its achievements since 1997 focusing on the fact that it has helped to bring down inflation rates to a considerable extent and Britain has now been experiencing a period of sustained economic growth with very low levels of unemployment. Considering changes in health policies, New labour points out that hospital waiting times and waiting lists of patients are at the lowest level and the NHS now has 19,300 more doctors and over 77,500 more nurses since 1987 and more modern equipment have been provided in these hospitals. Police numbers being at record levels, Labour claims that crime is under control and the Home Office has laid out strict policies to contro l undue asylum and benefit seeking. Barry and Patterson have discussed New Labour’s role within the framework of globalisation and ecological modernisation and suggested that all environmental policies and reform projects could only be understood within the context of ecological modernisation or EM principles considering the political factors as well. According to Barry and Patterson, globalisation lies at the centre of any discussion on environmental policy and the study shows New Labour’s use of EM approach is consistent with the aims of globalization.... ith its unique policies on the issue of asylum and social exclusion, education (Ryan, 2005), public health (Davidson et al , 2003) and economic policies (Raco, 2002) as well as public participation in the governmental agenda and decision making. Moss and O'Loughlin (2005) highlight the wide ranging public policy programme initiated by New Labour in areas of information and communications technology. The political ideology of new Labour seem to be the best explanatory tool for providing insights into New Labour's policy developments. Moss and O'Loughlin provide an ideological explanation of New labour's approach to policy structures and suggests that New Labour's approach to policy development in technology is structured, defined and is also conceptual and epistemological. Thus New labour seem to be responding to the new political ideology of the information age at the level of policy and this is reflected in its positive attitudes to new technology. The relationship between ideology and policy seem to be clearly related and would require further analysis to understand whether New Labour project is in any way unique and if so whether there is a clearly defined political philosophy followed by New Labour that seems to reflect in its policy implementations. However one important aspect of governance that seems to set apart New Labour and make it different with a definite New Labour project is the party's attempt to connect with citizens at all levels. As Morsion and Newman (2001) state, the Labour government has been increasingly using technology to connect with citizens and to this aim the UK Online and Citizen's Portal initiative was launched to improve the level of service and improve interaction between government and the citizens. However Morison and Newman claim

A Brief History of Economics Essay Example for Free

A Brief History of Economics Essay Through his use of dialectical materialism, Marx not only changed the history of economic thought, but found great illumination for himself regarding the bonds of human society. The concept that seems relatively simple in today’s complex economic world was utterly revolutionary in the time of Marx: people develop their ideas about the world (and thereby, their ideas for how society should be organized and stratified) based on the material aspects of their lives. It was an elegant extension of basic Marxist theory: capitalism, according to Marx, is interested in offering naked materialism as a kind of booby prize to make up for the means of production being taken away from the people. If the people can no longer work for themselves and no longer work at perfecting their own craft as individuals, then, as Marx correctly deduced, people would require something to validate their work. This became the center of capitalism, as Marx understood it: materialism exists as a kind of justification for capitalism, and since materialism has permeated our culture to such an extreme degree, eventually social orders began to revolve around it. Hence, what capitalism serves as the cause of what Marx saw as nothing less than ongoing class warfare. It is interesting to note that Marx believed a violent revolution on the part of the proletariat was not simply a possible method of changing things, but actually served as the only method of changing things. This is because materialism was so embedded into class structures (which, in turn, was so embedded in power structures), and the only way for society to functionally survive was for it to become overturned completely. It is also interesting to note the ongoing effect that Marx has had on philosophic thought: materialism had previously been dislodged by Descartes and the famous declaration â€Å"I think, therefore I am;† as far as most people who pondered these things could conclude, thought preceded matter. However, Marx not only brought materialism to the philosophic forefront—the then-controversial idea that material preceded thought—but illustrated the notion that the abstractions of materialism had been concretized by capitalism into purchasable goods. 2: Marx and the Secret Source of Profit Perhaps the most enduring notion of Marx’s is the so-called secret of the source of profit under a capitalistic society†¦though such is Marx’s legacy of intellectual thought, a great many people simply accept this notion as reality: the source of profit is the surplus value that an employer gains from laborers. After all, the means of production have been taken from the people: skilled artisan cobblers have been replaced by factory line workers churning out shoe after shoe after shoe. The money saved by employing this assembly-line method of industrial production becomes pure profit for the employer. Interestingly, Marx tethered this to his own theories on circulating capital—that is, something that does not last, and is used up in the production of other goods and services, in direct opposition to fixed capital, which is traditionally held for over a year by a business or institution. Marx astutely deduced that the distinction between these concepts is not only relative, but arbitrary: the idea that capital held for 365 days is circulating and that capital held for 366 days is fixed is absurd. However, it allows the proletariat to essentially gloss over their own necessity to the entire institution of capitalism: they are led to believe that society is held up by the fixed capital of major investors and their long-term investments. In reality, society is held aloft by the ongoing purchases of the common man (and woman): their disposable income is burned off to provide them a sense that capitalism is worth it†¦it turn, their disposable income is used to make the rich richer, as the cliche goes, all the way up the capitalist pyramid. In Marx’s view, this is one of many ways that those in power forestall the seemingly unavoidable class war that he advocates: those with power—the purchasing power of the common man—are convinced they have none, and are bought off with trinkets. It is interesting to note that this echoes the master/slave morality inversion of Nietzsche. 3: Marginalists and the Economy In the evolution of economic theory, the impact of marginalism cannot be overstated. Once one had accepted the blunt realities of Marx—specifically, that society was organized based on the perceived value of items—the logical question remained: how does one quantify the value of an item? Marginalism illustrated the diminishing returns on the marginal utility of resold products, which dramatically impacted analysis of capitalist economy, the focus of economic analysis, and theories of value and distribution. Regarding the analysis of capitalist economy, marginalism helped solidify the supply and demand notion of economics as that of mainstream economic thought, as opposed to the labor theory of value espoused by Karl Marx. To put it mildly, this has had ongoing economic effects for the last century and a half. The focus of economic analysis shifted accordingly, as marginalism interacted with price theory: this allowed economics to project demand curves utilizing marginal rates of substitution as a means of determining not only when, but why a seller is willing to relinquish a product for a particular price. Perhaps one of the most lasting effects of marginalism on economic thought has been its effect on theories of value and distribution. With the previous measures in place, economists (as well as common people) now had a more-or-less accurate measure of determining the value of any given product in any given social context. Of course, this also effects the ongoing distribution of certain products to certain demographics in order to maximize profitability. Interestingly, this is one of the chief criticisms of marginalism as well: that it is a vague pseudoscience whose intent is to maintain not only the economic status quo, but the appearance of the status quo. It is no surprise, then, that Marxists continue to grapple with marginalist theory: they see it as a means of keeping the proletariat in check, and preventing any uprisings from them. 4: Thorstein Veblen: Survival of the Fattest Thorstein Veblen, for better or worse, specialized in bringing the human element into economic theory. Specifically, he theorized that the institution of the leisure class was a parasite feeding upon America: upon the backs of workers who are actually productive are a class who seek only profit and produce nothing but waste. He essentially created and popularized the notion of conspicuous consumption as the epitome of this theory: that wealthy individuals spend large amounts of money on ostentatious goods whose sole benefit is to publicly display their wealth to the world. Unfortunately, this has become an integral part of the economy: although an engineer might weep at the man spending over a hundred thousand dollars for a car, the American economy would be crippled if conspicuous consumption vanished overnight. Hence, the parasite metaphor: conspicuous consumption and naked profit helps the wealthy to bloat themselves on the backs of the poor until the entire enterprise inevitably crumbles under its own weight. Veblen perceived quite clearly that human notions about the world are social constructs created by individuals, and as time went on, those notions would change, necessitating a change in economic thought as well. He makes frequent comparisons to evolution to further this end: idle curiosity spurs innovation, innovation spurs conflict between the old guard and the innovators, and an economic Darwinism is born. The advent of industry and technological revolutions merely expanded his original point: the parasitic relationship continued unabated, as the innovations of the productive engineer class were inevitably utilized as means of conspicuous consumption and waste on the part of the leisure class. Planes are developed as a result of idle curiosity, for instance, but it is the leisure class that necessitates the invention of first class as a way of displaying their own status in the social hierarchy.

Political Thinking of Ibn Taymiyyah

Political Thinking of Ibn Taymiyyah â€Å"Political thinking of Ibn Taymiyyah† Abstract: This report is an analysis of the political thought of â€Å"IBN TAYMIYYA†, in full â€Å"Taqi-al-din’ Abu-al-Abbas’ Ahmed Ibn Ab-Dal-Salam’ Ibn Abd-Allah’ Ibn Muhammed Ibn Taymiyyah (1263-1328 CE).He was one of Islam’s most forceful theologians, great Islamic scholar, jurist and logician of his time, he also produced many works on these topics. He was also the source of Wahabbiya, a traditionalist movement of Islam. The objective of this research is to show that how Ibn Taymmiya’s political theory provided the critical framework for Sunni caliphate theory, shiaite immamaite theory and for the models provided by the different Muslim philosophers and sufists theologians. Introduction: When in 1258, the Abbasid dynasty disappeared and Baghdad was captured by the Mongols, religious legitimacy through the caliphs recognition was no longer an option for the new dynasties. In these circumstamstances, Ibn Taymiyyah attended to give a religious legitimacy to the rulers through the concept of â€Å"Governance in the name of sacred law† (siyasa alshar’iyya) 1 and principle of religious and political censorship that obliges all Muslim to â€Å"command the good and forbid evil†(hisba) 1 Meanings of Sacred law: The term sacred law is used in the three meanings2 The revealed law (al-shar’ al-munnzal) The interpreted law (al-shar’ al-mu’awwal) The perverted law (al-shar’ al-mubaddal) The revealed law: What the prophet (peace be upon him) brought, one has to follow it and whoever disobeys it has to be punished. The interpreted law: These are the legal opinions of the jurists who bring them by their own reasoning. Nobody is entitled to impose it on people nor should all people be forbidden (to follow) it. The perverted law: It lies against God and Prophet (Peace be upon him), or against people through false testimony and other things, and of clear injustice.3 Importance of Government: Ibn Taymiyyah regarded the institution of government as indispensable. Ibn Taymiyyah gives the idea that religion cannot be established without government and the duty of commanding the good and forbidding evil cannot be discharged without power and authority and this applies to all religious duties for helping those who are wronged and to be punished with the accordance of legal penalties.4 Ibn Taymiyyah emphasizes that the necessary objective of those in authority (Wilaya) is to improve the material and religious conditions of the people in preparation for life to come. 5 Leader of State: Ibn Taymiyyah believes that for appointment to a public office the most suitable person should be chosen on grounds of relevant competence (quwwah) and integrity (amanah), the two most necessary qualities. However a person possessing both the qualities in equal measure is difficult to find, therefore a person who will be appearing as a leader should be a Best Muslim 6 Role of government: Ibn Taymiyyah started his book with the following verses of Quran; â€Å"Surely Allah commands you to make over trusts to those worthy of them, and that when you judge between people, you judge with justice. Surely Allah admonishes you with what is excellent. Surely Allah is ever Hearing, Seeing. O you who believe, obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority from among you; then if you quarrel about anything refer it to Allah and the Messenger, if you believe in Allah and the Last Day. This is best and more likely to (achieve) the end.† Ibn Taymiyyah remarks the above Quranic verse, revealed â€Å"in connection with those in authority; they should makeover trust to those worthy of them and they should administer justice fairly.† 7 Ibn Taymiyyah gives the idea on role of government by narrating the following Ahadith of the Prophet (peace be upon him); â€Å"Everyone of you is a shepherd, and everyone of you is responsible for his flock; the Caliph who rules the people is a shepherd and he is responsible for those whom he governs; the woman is a shepherdess in her husband’s house, and she is responsible for the household; the youngster is a shepherd in regard to his father’s wealth, and he is responsible for the money at his disposal; the slave is a shepherd as regards to his master’s possessions, and he is responsible for these possessions. Lo! Every one of you is a shepherd and every one of you is responsible for his flock†(Sahihayn Hadith). â€Å"Any shepherd to whom Allah has entrusted his flock who dies one day, after having cheated his subjects (but without repenting of his faults), Allah will not allow him to breathe the odor of Paradise.†(Sahih Muslim). Ibn Taymiyyah explained the ahadith as; â€Å"Creatures are the servants of Allah, and viceroys represent Allah among his servants; they are the overseers of these servants: they occupy a position similar to that of the two partners in relation to each other; they partake of the function of the viceroy and of the legal representative. When the custodian or the legal representative delegates some of his power to another man, when he could have delegated it to a man more expert in commerce or in the administration of lands and buildings, or when he sells the goods at a low price, and a purchaser willing to pay a higher price is available, then this custodian or legal representative has cheated the man who entrusted him with his affairs. More especially if there was between the custodian and the delegate a friendship or relationship. The custodian would then hate the appointed delegate and disdain him and consider that the delegate has cheated him to do a favor to a relative or friend of his.† 8 According to Ibn Taymiyyah ruler’s duty to prepare the people spiritually for the life hereafter .The state leader should be commanding good and forbidding evil and he along with his subordinates should always be guided by the demands of Quran and Sunnah. But if government does not know how to apply the teachings of Islam to the particular problem, he must consult the advice of the Ulema.9 It is evident according to Ibn Taymiyyah, the aim of the government is to try to reform the religious life of the people, otherwise the people will be at great lossand would not benefit by what they may enjoy in this world. Also, a reformation of the worldly affairs is necessary for the establishment of the Religion.†10 Conclusion: According to Ibn Taymiyyah; Islamic state is based on the idea of public trust Islamic state meant to be run by the consultation The main goal of Islamic state is to enforce shariyah The Leader of the Islamic state should be the Best Muslim Anarchy is preferable to authority Baber Johansen, A perfect Law in imperfect society, (London: I.B. Tauris, 2008) p.261 Baber Johansen, A perfect Law in imperfect society, (London: I.B. Tauris, 2008) p.264 MajmÃ…Â « {FatÄ wÄ , 3:268; cf. WÄ si ¢iyya (â€Å"Introduction†), p.29–30. Ibn Taymiyyah, al-siyassa al-shar’iyah (cairo :dar al-sha’b 1971),p.185 Ibn Taimiyah, Al-Siyasah al-Shariyah, op. cit., p. 36 Cf. Ibn Taimiyah, al-Siyasah al-Shariyah, op. cit., pp. 25-33 Ibn taymiyya,al siyassa al sahriyah (cairo :dar al-sha’b 1971),p.12 Ibn Taymiyyah, al-siyassa al-sahriyah (cairo :dar al-sha’b 1971),p.21 (ibid ,p55) Ibn Taymiyyah, al-siyassa al-sahriyah (cairo :dar al-sha’b 1971),p.32

Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe :: essays research papers

	Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who lived to the age of eighty-two and produced more than 130 volumes of poetry, plays, letters, and science, is acknowledged to be one of the giants of world literature. His writing ranged from fairy tales, to psychological novels, to political and historical novels, and to something completely unique and different such as Faust. 	Goethe was born shortly after the death of the Pope, on August 28, 1749 in Frankfurt am Main to a middle class family. His mother had many connections because she was a daughter of the mayor. Young Goethe was brought up having a feeling of aristocracy. He had only two siblings out of the total eight who survived. One was his sister Cornelia and the other was the first born. He began writing at an early age and wrote abundantly. As C.P. Magill points out, "his writings are of daunting bulk and diversity. He is the national poet of a most industrious people and the quantity of information about him is correspondingly enormous." His poetry is of numerous styles, ranging from the Renaissance to his own times. At the age of sixteen he was sent to study law at a university, but would have more gladly read classics at another university. After ten years he was invited by Duke Karl August to come to Weimar (this city would be his actual home until his death there on March 22, 1832). He was already a good lawyer and had written the novel Werther. His work in Weimar caused him to observe the natural world around him and led him towards science. He would yet write fourteen volumes on the subject. At that time Weimar was an important city in Germany. C.P. Magill describes the time in the following passage: "Up to the early years of this century, Weimar remained a symbol of the best elements in the German cultural tradition, and a center of activity in the arts. It was, for example, in its art schools, which Walter Gropius took over in 1919 and renamed the Bauhaus, that the modern movement in architecture began. Unhappy political associations now cling around the name of Weimar, providing for pessimists the futility of the exalted humanism engendered there in the eighteenth century and reminding the more sanguine that ideals are so called because they are unattainable." Footnote: Magill, C.P., German Literature (Great Britain, Oxford University Press, 1974) 50.

The Giver Essay example -- Essays Papers

The Giver The Giver is about a boy named Jonas who lives in the future in an almost perfect community. Jonas is chosen to be the person who carries all the memories of the past, given to him by the giver. It is by Lois Lowry. There are many good and bad things in the Giver. Some good things are that hardly anyone gets hurt. When people do get hurt they take a pill and the pain goes right away. No one ever breaks bones or anything. There are no criminals, and there are no locks on any homes or buildings. Another good thing is that everyone knows who everyone else is and it’s a very small community with only a few hundred people. There are hardly ever any visitors from outside the community. Sometimes kids from other communities go play with the kids in the book’s community. All the people are provided with homes, jobs, and food. A bad thing about the giver’s community is release. When a person breaks a major rule, is too old, or isn’t right as a baby they get release d. Release is killing. In the book there are twins and the smaller one has to be released. His father turned and opened the cupboard. He took out a syringe and a small bottle. Very carefully he inserted the needle into the bottle and began to fill the syringe with a clear liquid. Jonas winced sympathetically. He had forgotten that newchildren had to get shots. He hated shots himself, though he knew they were necessary. To his surprise, his father began very carefully to direct the needle into the top of the newchild’s forehead, puncturing the place where the fragile skin pulsed. The newborn squirmed and wailed faintly â€Å"Why’s he-â€Å" â€Å"Shhh,† The giver said sharply. His father was talking, and Jonas realized that he was hearing the answer to the question he had started to ask. Still in the special voice, his father was saying, â€Å"I know, I know. It hurts, little guy. But I have to use a vein, and the veins in your arm are still too teeny-weeny.â €  He pushed the plunger very slowly, injecting the liquid into the scalp vein until the syringe was empty. â€Å"All done. ! That wasn’t so bad, was it?† Jonas heard his father say cheerfully. He turned aside and dropped the syringe into a waste receptacle. Now he cleans him up and makes him comfy, Jonas said to himself, aware that the giver didn’t want to talk during the little ceremony. As he continued to watch, the newchild, no longer crying, moved his arms and le... ...n away from the town to Elsewhere. The memories she received became lost in the town. The community has always depended on the receiver to hold their memories for them. The Giver and Jonas made a plan to leave town. Jonas is supposed to go to Elsewhere. In Elsewhere the town is completely different from the town Jonas came from. When Jonas get to Elsewhere, it means that the community has to bear the burden themselves that Jonas was holding. Jonas went to Elsewhere with a baby named Gabriel. They went through the cold and were starving but finally in the end made it to Elsewhere. The Giver had to stay to help the people cope with the memories they would receive. I agree with what Jonas did. People should be able to make their own decisions and live life the way they want to Jonas was starting to see the fighting of the wars, he didn't really liked that memory. Another memory that impacted me was when Joneas was in the top of the hill and saw, and felt the fresh snow and when he got into the slide and went of the snow, but then after he maked the planed to live and tried to make it, but after he left home he took Gabriel to go with him, but unfortionaly they both died in the way.

A small family Essay

There is an increasing trend around the world to have a small family rather than a large family. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of having a small family rather than a large family? Over the past decades birth rates have steadily declined. Consequently, the says of nuclear families have diminish all over the world. This easy I will discuss the advantages and shortcomings of smaller family sizes. As small family can benefit children and parents and make it easier to find sufficient resources for a family. Children can enjoy their parents full attention instead of sharing it with multiple siblings. Additionally, I an family with less children sibling rivalry is less likely to be a problem among children. Parents can spend more time with the individual child and the child‘s favourite activities. Caring for a large family can be stressful mad exhausting. Parents of a small family should therefore be more relaxed and patient. Lastly, fewer children mean the family budget is more likely to leave room for some extras, like holidays or separate bedrooms for each child. On the other hand, there are also some downsides for all family members of a small family. Children can end become spoilt and less responsible than their peer growing in large families. Being an only child is often associated with egoism and less developed social skills. Parents will focus all their expectations on fewer children. This will heighten pressure to succeed on the individual child. Moreover, it might be simpler for parents to raise multiple children as siblings learn from each other and play together. In a large family every member can contribute is domestic duties are shared. Also, some common family activities, such as outdoor games, are probably more fun with a larger family. All in all, there are positive and negative aspects of having a smaller family. As family sizes are decreasing most people to believe the advantages outweigh the disadvantages significantly.